Introduction
Jihadism in Afghanistan has evolved beyond a purely religious phenomenon; it has become a political and social tool that has been frequently utilized throughout the country’s history. The concept of jihad has been used as a means to mobilize popular forces and justify warfare against enemies, particularly foreign invaders and non-religious governments, from the time of Ahmad Shah Durrani to the present day. This way of thinking peaked during the Soviet-Afghan War and continues to be used by radical groups as a powerful ideology to strengthen their power and combat both foreign and domestic forces.
As Barfield states in his book Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History, “The invocation of the defence of Islam to justify resistance against the Kabul regime or its policies has become a sword that is rarely sheathed in Afghan politics; whether foreigners are present on Afghan soil or not makes no difference.” This clearly illustrates that jihadism has played a significant role as a constant element in Afghanistan’s politics and society, continuing to impact the country’s security.
Historical Roots of Jihadism in Afghanistan
The concept of jihad has existed in Afghanistan for centuries. Kings in this region used the fatwa (religious decree) of jihad for expansionist aims and attacks on neighbouring countries. For instance, Ahmad Shah Durrani, the founder of modern Afghanistan, justified his attacks on India as a jihad against Hindu infidels. This use of jihad for political and military purposes was adopted by other Afghan rulers as well. Gorgin, in his book The Rise of Modern Afghanistan, notes that Dost Mohammad Khan (1826-1838 and 1842-1863) employed the idea of jihad in his struggles against the Sikhs, calling himself “Amir al-Mu’minin” to garner military support from Afghan tribes and financial aid from devout Muslims. His “declaration of jihad against the infidel Sikhs” rallied thousands of Muslims under his banner.
After Dost Mohammad Khan, Amir Abdul Rahman Khan also utilized jihad as a means to legitimize his rule. Abdul Rahman incited the people against foreign enemies by focusing on jihadist ideology, even though in reality, most of his wars were fought against his own people. By emphasizing the defence of “Afghanistan’s territorial integrity against the invasion of infidels,” he successfully channeled public anger toward internal enemies as well. Historical documents, including Siraj al-Tawarikh by historian Mirza Faiz Muhammad Katib Hazara and The Massacre and Oppression of Hazaras during the Reign of Amir Abdul Rahman compiled by the researcher Muhammad Gulzari based on British archival documents, reveal that the Amir received fatwas for jihad from religious clerics to suppress the Hazaras. As a result, he was able to massacre a significant portion of the Hazaras (historically documented as 62%) in Urozgan and other Hazara-inhabited areas, enslave their women and daughters, and sell their men as slaves in the markets of Kandahar, Kabul, and even in some parts of British India.
While history shows that Abdul Rahman carried out extensive repression in other areas of Afghanistan, including against the Shinwari, Nuristani, Wardak, and Andar tribes in Ghazni, he specifically used the term jihad for the suppression of the Hazaras.
The Impact of Jihadism on Popular Mobilization and Security in Afghanistan
Given that religion significantly influences social layers in Afghanistan, the concept of jihad has always played a vital role in mobilizing the Afghan people against external and internal enemies. Religious leaders and mosques have been crucial tools for propaganda to encourage people to participate in wars. In all conflicts in Afghanistan, despite being initiated for political purposes, religious beliefs have served as the primary motivating factor, with religious leaders promoting these beliefs and encouraging people to fight through mosques. This trend persisted not only during the Soviet War but also in subsequent periods.
Opposition to Western countries and values, which many clerics and religious leaders deem “infidel,” has resulted in any innovation or progress originating from the West being portrayed as a threat to Islam and Afghan society. This narrative, reinforced by jihadist groups, has hindered Afghanistan’s societal advancement in many areas, particularly in scientific and social domains, and has paved the way for the emergence and strengthening of radical groups.
Although non-state actors and sometimes governments in Afghanistan have effectively mobilized the public to achieve political goals, historical evidence shows that this approach has not only failed to ensure public safety and order but has also acted as a disruptive factor in maintaining public order.
The activities of jihadist groups, especially during the war against government forces and the Soviet Union in the 1980s and early 1990s, are regarded as major factors contributing to social and military insecurity, even in areas under their control. The prolonged conflicts, in which jihadist groups (the active jihadist parties fighting Soviet forces) and radical Islamists like the Taliban engaged in terrorist activities, have severely endangered various aspects of society. Based on real experiences in Afghanistan, it can be said that jihad and jihadism, contrary to the claims of their proponents, have not and do not yield achievements in terms of public security.
Security Consequences of Jihadism in Afghanistan
1) Political and Social Instability
The continuation of jihadism in Afghanistan has directly weakened state institutions and contributed to political instability. Jihadist groups have used military and ideological tools not only to confront the Afghan government but also to destabilize the political landscape and endanger existing structures. At the same time, these groups have relied on their jihadist ideology to exacerbate ethnic and religious divisions, leading to social instability. The justification of violence as jihad has weakened the Afghan government and pushed society toward fragmentation. Additionally, the presence of radical jihadist groups like the Taliban as key players in Afghanistan’s political and social arenas has created deeper crises. The jihadist activities of the Taliban and their allied groups have openly highlighted religious conflicts in Afghanistan. Currently, the situation in Afghanistan is such that religious disputes have dramatically increased, with the Taliban, who dominate a radical Sunni movement, labeling parts of the Shia community as “rafidis” and apostates, considering their killing a religious duty. This Taliban approach has exacerbated internal violence, severely undermined security and social unity in Afghanistan, and created conditions for long-term tensions among various groups.
2) Strengthening Transnational Terrorism
Due to years of conflict and the activities of jihadist groups, Afghanistan has become one of the main hubs of transnational terrorism. The prolonged activities of jihadist groups like al-Qaeda, the Taliban, and, more recently, ISIS have turned Afghanistan into a crucial base for executing international terrorist operations. These groups use jihadist ideology to recruit foreign fighters and have managed to plan and execute various operations worldwide. One of the most notable examples of this threat is the September 11 attacks, which al-Qaeda orchestrated from Afghanistan. Additionally, other terrorist attacks in countries such as Pakistan, Iran, and Russia are recognized as results of the terrorist activities of jihadist groups connected to Afghanistan. In fact, Afghanistan has become a primary base for transnational jihadists, and these groups continuously pose threats to regional and global security by leveraging the geographic and political position of the country. Ongoing efforts to spread the narrative of jihadism, which has been strengthened for nearly half a century in Afghanistan, are now showcasing their destructive outcomes, and with the increasing presence of radical groups, transnational security threats have significantly risen. Consequently, Afghanistan is recognized not only as a war-torn country but also as a central hub for international terrorism, with risks to global security persisting without any signs of mitigation.
3) Weakening Security and Military Institutions
Jihadist groups have systematically undermined the legitimacy of Afghanistan’s security and military institutions by utilizing jihadist ideology. They have portrayed state institutions as tools of “non-Muslims” or foreign forces that must be opposed. The Afghanistan security forces, intended to protect the country’s security and territorial integrity, have lost credibility and legitimacy among large segments of society due to these extremist ideologies. These groups viewed the Afghan military and security forces as synonymous with foreign occupying forces, considering fighting and killing them as part of their religious mission. This ideology led to the significant weakening and even collapse of security and military institutions following the fall of the Afghanistan government. The collapse of these institutions not only created a security vacuum in the country but also paved the way for the dominance of the Taliban and other jihadist groups. This resulted in the loss of specialized personnel from security institutions and the overall dismantling of the country’s security system. For instance, after seizing power, the Taliban proudly declared that they had cleansed institutions like the National Directorate of Security or Intelligence of “undesirable” individuals. This Taliban approach reflects the ongoing weakening of security institutions and the continued dominance of jihadist ideology within Afghanistan’s security structures.
4) Increased Poverty and Migration
The wars resulting from jihadism and ongoing internal conflicts have led to widespread poverty and unemployment in Afghanistan. As insecurity and violence escalate, many people have been forced to flee their homes and agricultural lands. This situation has resulted in a rise in internal and external migration, presenting Afghanistan with serious humanitarian crises. Many Afghans have sought refuge in neighbouring countries such as Iran and Pakistan, while others have migrated to more distant countries. This wave of migration has negatively impacted Afghanistan’s economy and society, as well as creating humanitarian and security challenges for host countries. Contrary to initial perceptions that the victory of jihadist groups would bring stability and peace to Afghanistan, the reality shows that these groups have not only failed to bring peace and tranquillity but have instead contributed to the spread of instability and poverty. Currently, millions of Afghans, including former members of jihadist groups, are scattered as migrants around the world, many facing harsh and inhumane conditions. Some former jihadist members have also joined criminal gangs or engaged in drug trafficking as a means of survival.
5) Continuation of Violent Extremism
The presence and activities of jihadist groups have contributed to the normalization of violence and extremism in Afghanistan. Jihadist ideology has served as a driving force for radicalization and violent actions among various groups, with many individuals resorting to violence as a means of resolving conflicts or achieving political goals. This has led to the emergence of new militant groups and the proliferation of armed violence in the region. Various forms of extremism, ranging from religious to ethnic, have resulted in new challenges for security and stability in Afghanistan, preventing the establishment of a sustainable peace.
Solutions and Recommendations
1) Countering the Ideology of Jihadism
To mitigate the influence and destructive impact of jihadism, comprehensive educational and cultural initiatives must be developed and implemented to promote a moderate interpretation of Islam and actively counter extremist ideologies. These programs should be integrated into schools, universities, and religious institutions to prevent the formation of jihadist ideologies from an early stage. It is crucial to collaborate with respected religious scholars who can assist in altering religious perspectives through moderate Islamic interpretations. These scholars should be positioned at the forefront of efforts to counter extremism, advocating for non-violence and promoting moderate views that diverge from jihadist thinking.
However, it is necessary to recognize that advancements in technology and widespread internet access have enabled jihadist ideologies to transcend geographic boundaries. Radical groups have successfully leveraged virtual spaces to disseminate extremist ideologies and recruit individuals globally. Consequently, combating jihadism demands a coordinated global response. Supporting governments, Muslim communities, and even families worldwide is essential to curb the spread of this extremist ideology. Educating families and local communities about the risks associated with jihadist beliefs can play a pivotal role in reducing youth recruitment into these ideologies.
2) Strengthening State Institutions
A vital component of countering jihadism is fortifying Afghanistan’s governmental and security institutions in the post-Taliban era. Establishing a robust police force and military capable of addressing radical jihadist threats in all their forms is imperative. These security forces must receive advanced, contemporary training to effectively confront jihadist groups. Government institutions should also adopt a resolute stance against radical religious narratives that incite terrorism under the guise of jihad, maintaining a strict no-tolerance policy towards such groups.
In addition to building security forces, Afghanistan’s legitimate post-Taliban governments must focus on reinforcing legal and executive frameworks. Establishing strong state institutions grounded in principles of justice, transparency, and accountability can help rebuild public trust and serve as a bulwark against the spread of jihadist ideologies. Moreover, creating economic and employment opportunities is crucial, as many young individuals turn to jihadist groups due to unemployment and poverty.
3) Regional and International Cooperation
As a transnational phenomenon, jihadism necessitates extensive regional and international collaboration for effective containment and control. Neighboring countries, including Pakistan, Iran, China, and Central Asian states, should establish close partnerships among themselves and with Afghanistan’s legitimate post-Taliban government to prevent jihadist radical groups from exploiting their territories as launching points for terrorist activities.
In this context, forming regional and international alliances capable of effectively addressing jihadist threats is of paramount importance. Such alliances should facilitate intelligence sharing, joint counter-terrorism operations, and diplomatic efforts to build a cohesive approach to countering jihadism. Additionally, the international community must support the Afghan government in strengthening its security institutions and implementing developmental initiatives that will deter the resurgence of jihadist and radical forces in Afghanistan’s political and military arenas.
Conclusion
Jihadism in Afghanistan, as a lasting phenomenon, has left profound and widespread impacts on internal security and regional stability. This extremist ideology, which has particularly emerged among Sunni groups in Afghanistan, has utilized religious concepts to justify violence and repression, becoming a powerful tool for reinforcing and stabilizing the positions of radical groups. Jihadism has not only weakened state structures and security institutions in Afghanistan but has also fostered deep ethnic and sectarian divisions through the promotion of violence and discord. To counter the destructive consequences of jihadism, multifaceted approaches are needed that include combating extremist ideologies, strengthening state and security institutions, and fostering regional and international cooperation in security and cultural matters.
Although the radical jihadist narrative has caused countless disasters for the people of Afghanistan over the past few decades, unfortunately, this narrative still possesses the ability to mobilize the public, especially among the poor and marginalized masses. Some politicians and ethnic actors have also sought to strengthen their power within society by instrumentally utilizing religion and this extremist ideology. By exploiting religious and jihadist beliefs, they have kept this extremist narrative alive and employed it as a means to achieve their ethnic and group interests.
To achieve a stable and peaceful Afghanistan, the radical religious narrative known as jihadism will yield nothing but a continuation of violence and disaster. Therefore, mobilizing the public to promote a moderate and humanitarian narrative of Islam is essential. Only by expanding concepts of peaceful coexistence and enhancing moderate religious viewpoints can Afghanistan be liberated from the clutches of violent and extremist ideologies and guided toward peace and sustainable development.
