The Taliban’s Return: From the Fall to the Struggle for Freedom and Afghanistan’s Political Future

Abstract

The Taliban’s return to power on August 15, 2021, following the withdrawal of foreign forces and the collapse of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, marked one of the most consequential political and social shifts in the country in the past two decades. This event not only cast the future of Afghanistan’s political order into uncertainty but also triggered widespread domestic and international concerns over human rights, civil liberties, the role of women in society, and the treatment of minorities. This article offers a critical and analytical examination of the fall of the previous government, the Taliban’s governance and policies since their return, and the current legal, social, and political challenges facing the country. Drawing on credible domestic and international sources, it also outlines perspectives on Afghanistan’s future, potential pathways out of the crisis, and the urgent need for an inclusive political system that engages all ethnic groups and ideological movements. The analysis underscores that only through dialogue, social justice, and respect for the fundamental rights of the people can Afghanistan avoid repeating the bitter experiences of the past and move toward lasting stability.

Introduction

The Taliban’s return to power—after two decades of republican governance supported extensively by the international community—ushered in a new and uncertain chapter in Afghanistan’s modern political history. This sudden shift not only led to the rapid collapse of governmental, military, and social institutions but also generated a wave of anxiety, disillusionment, and distrust among broad segments of society, particularly women, minorities, and civil activists. The grim memories of the Taliban’s previous rule (1996–2001) and the group’s rigid approach to fundamental issues such as human rights, freedom of expression, girls’ education, and political participation have deepened public doubts about the country’s future.

Although the Taliban initially claimed to have changed their approach to governance, international engagement, and social policy, their actions over the past four years reveal a persistent adherence to many of the same hardline practices. The closure of schools to girls, restrictions on the media, suppression of civil protests, and failure to form an inclusive government have placed the group under intense domestic and international criticism.

This article seeks to provide a comprehensive assessment of the collapse of the previous government, the Taliban’s performance in their current tenure, and the resulting impact on Afghanistan’s political, social, and legal structures. It aims to take a scholarly, impartial, and realistic approach—grounded in reliable sources and the perspectives of domestic and foreign experts—while also addressing the challenges ahead, the potential for national dialogue, and the necessity of redefining Afghanistan’s political order. The ultimate objective is to outline a possible “roadmap” for overcoming the crisis and achieving stability, participation, and justice.

1. The Fall and Its Historical Lessons

The second fall of Kabul was not merely a political event—it was a bitter historical experience for the Afghan people, one that demands careful reflection. It represented the collapse of political, security, and international structures in the face of an armed movement that had been marginalized for two decades.

The lesson from this fall is clear: reliance on foreign aid, without reinforcing the internal foundations of governance, leaves a political structure profoundly vulnerable. Despite significant international military and financial support, the former Afghan government suffered from deep weaknesses in domestic legitimacy, political cohesion, and its connection to the public. Internal rivalries and competition within power structures, pervasive corruption, the absence of a strategic plan for political transition, and an overdependence on the U.S. military presence were among the key factors leading to its collapse.

Therefore, the experience of the fall should not be regarded solely as a failure, but also as a potential starting point for rethinking the political structure, public participation, and national decision-making independence. History has shown that the durability of a political system cannot be guaranteed solely by military power; it depends on popular legitimacy, transparency, and informed, committed leadership.

The Taliban’s return to power has brought enormous challenges for Afghanistan. The experience of state collapse, widespread human rights violations, and severe restrictions on freedoms points to an urgent need to reassess both domestic and international approaches. Only through inclusive participation, respect for human rights, and the support of the international community can Afghanistan move toward a brighter future.

2. Human Rights and Freedoms under Taliban Rule

The Taliban’s return to power has led to dramatic changes in the state of human rights and fundamental freedoms in Afghanistan. According to reports by international organizations and human rights institutions, human rights conditions have significantly deteriorated, with many liberties either severely curtailed or eliminated.

2.1. Women’s and Girls’ Rights

One of the most critical and alarming areas of human rights violations under Taliban rule has been the severe restrictions placed on women and girls. Since their return, women’s access to higher education and social activities has been sharply curtailed. Secondary schools for girls have been closed in many areas, and women have been barred from employment across multiple sectors (Human Rights Watch, 2024). The Taliban have enforced strict dress codes and imposed restrictions on movement, rendering public spaces unsafe for women. These policies have drawn widespread condemnation from international organizations and governments (Amnesty International, 2023).

2.2. Freedom of Expression and the Media

Freedom of expression and media activity have also come under intense pressure. The Taliban have imposed extensive restrictions on media outlets, journalists, and civil activists, leading to widespread closures or forced self-censorship (UNAMA, 2024). Journalists face threats, arrests, and torture, and many independent media organizations have been compelled to cease operations. This environment has obstructed the free flow of information, stifled government criticism, and severely limited political openness (Council on Foreign Relations, 2023).

2.3. Ethnic and Religious Minorities

Ethnic and religious minorities have likewise faced discrimination and repression under Taliban rule. Communities such as the Hazara, Shia Muslims, and other religious minorities have been subjected to violence and systemic injustice. Reports indicate a rise in targeted attacks against these groups and their exclusion from social, cultural, and economic rights (BBC Persian, 2024). This situation has deepened the human rights crisis and threatens the prospects for peace and social stability in Afghanistan.

2.4. Women’s and Girls’ Rights: From Structural Erasure to Hidden Resistance

Since the Taliban’s return, Afghan women and girls have faced unprecedented restrictions. According to Human Rights Watch, Afghanistan is the only country where girls are banned from secondary and higher education. Women have also been excluded from most public- and private-sector jobs, with restrictions placed on their movement and presence in public spaces.¹ Nonetheless, forms of resistance have emerged. For instance, a network of underground schools run by women’s rights activists has been quietly providing education to girls in defiance of Taliban policies. These initiatives reflect the determination of civil society to resist the regime’s oppressive measures.

2.5. Freedom of Expression and the Media: Organized Repression and Enforced Self-Censorship

Media freedom in Afghanistan has been severely curtailed. According to Reporters without Borders, the Taliban have imposed sweeping censorship, arrested journalists, and shut down media outlets, drastically narrowing the media space. In recent years, more than half of Afghanistan’s media organizations have closed, and most journalists have left the country due to security and economic pressures.²

Women journalists have been particularly affected. According to the International Federation of Journalists, the number of active women journalists in Afghanistan has plummeted, with many dismissed from their jobs or forced to flee the country.³

2.6. Ethnic and Religious Minorities: Structural Discrimination and Targeted Violence

Ethnic and religious minorities, particularly the Hazara, face systemic discrimination and targeted violence. According to Human Rights Watch, armed attacks on schools and mosques belonging to Shia minorities, especially the Hazara, have increased.¹ In addition, reports have surfaced of discrimination in the distribution of humanitarian aid. A Reuters investigation found that the Taliban have diverted international aid by force, preventing it from reaching minority communities.⁴

The future political trajectory of Afghanistan under Taliban rule is fraught with challenges and uncertainty. Since their return to power, the country’s political, social, and economic structures have undergone profound change. We will now examine the different dimensions of this path:

3. The Political Structure: Concentration of Power and the Elimination of Democratic Institutions

Following the declaration of the “Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,” the Taliban dissolved all democratic institutions, including the Independent Election Commission. There is now no electoral mechanism for political participation. Taliban leader Hibatullah Akhundzada, as “Amir al-Mu’minin, wields sweeping authority, making major political and social decisions without consultation with any elected bodies. This concentration of power has severely limited political space for different segments of society.¹

3.1. Elimination of Political Parties and Suppression of Civil Society

In August 2023, the Taliban banned all political parties, arguing that “there is no concept of political parties in Islamic Sharia.” This decision drastically narrowed Afghanistan’s political space and eliminated the possibility of forming an opposition or challenging the government. Civil society activity, including NGOs and the media, has faced similarly severe restrictions.²

3.2. International Isolation and Lack of Formal Recognition

As of June 2025, only Russia has officially recognized the Taliban government. Most other countries, especially in the West, have withheld recognition due to human rights abuses, particularly violations against women and minorities. This international isolation has limited Afghanistan’s access to financial and development assistance, worsening the country’s economic situation.³

3.3. Economic Crisis and Dependence on Foreign Aid

Afghanistan’s economy has entered a deep recession since the Taliban’s return. According to the Brookings Institution, the country’s GDP fell by between 20% and 30% from 2021 to 2023. More than 23 million people, over half the population, now rely on humanitarian assistance. Yet due to reduced international aid and sanctions, meeting these needs remains a significant challenge.⁴

3.4. Internal Challenges and Security Threats

While the Taliban have achieved relative stability in some areas, security threats persist. The Islamic State Khorasan Province (ISIS-K) continues to launch attacks on civilians, particularly religious minorities. Internal divisions among Taliban leaders and widespread public discontent, especially among women and minorities, pose further risks to stability.⁵

The Taliban’s rigid, militarized governance, grounded in their interpretation of Sharia, seeks to centralize all authority in their hands. However, this approach faces strong domestic resistance, a lack of international recognition, and mounting economic pressures. International sanctions, the absence of global legitimacy, and a fragile human rights situation have left Afghanistan’s political future highly uncertain (International Crisis Group, 2023).

Moreover, the Taliban face substantial technical and administrative challenges, exacerbating mismanagement and corruption. These weaknesses risk deepening public dissatisfaction and eroding Taliban control in various regions (World Bank, 2023).

Resistance forces, including the National Resistance Front led by Ahmad Massoud and other local groups, play a significant role in shaping Afghanistan’s political and security landscape. These forces—symbols of armed opposition to Taliban rule—retain control over certain areas in the north and east. Their continued presence increases security pressure on the Taliban and reflects broader public discontent (BBC News, 2024).

Such resistance could be a key factor in future political developments, as any negotiation or political settlement would need to account for their position. Their active operations prevent the Taliban from fully consolidating power and keep open the possibility of political dialogue and power-sharing (Carnegie Endowment, 2023).

Conclusion

Four years after the Taliban’s return to power, Afghanistan remains suspended between hope and despair, security and repression, apparent stability and underlying political volatility. The Taliban’s comeback has not only reshaped the country’s governance and social fabric but also opened a new chapter of engagement or confrontation with the international community. A realistic assessment of Afghanistan’s current state and prospects requires a multi-layered approach that considers political, social, security, and human rights dimensions.

Politically, the post-republic order is not participatory but highly centralized and monolithic. The dismantling of electoral institutions, the closure of political parties, and the abolition of independent commissions mark a complete reversal from the democratic experiments of the past two decades. Legitimacy is no longer derived from the will of the people but from an exclusive, narrow religious interpretation claimed by the Taliban.

On human rights and freedoms, particularly for women and girls, Afghanistan has suffered one of the most dramatic reversals in the world. The denial of girls’ education, the ban on women working in national and international institutions, and severe restrictions on civil liberties and dress have cast a bleak shadow over half the country’s population. Ethnic and religious minorities—including Hazaras, Sikhs, and Sufis—also face systemic discrimination, targeted attacks, and exclusion from political and cultural life.

In the media sphere, extensive censorship, arbitrary arrests of journalists, the shutdown of news organizations, and heavy-handed state control have created a suffocating environment. Media outlets, once a hallmark of post-2001 progress, are now either closed or operating in survival mode.

Economically and in terms of security, while the Taliban have managed to impose relative calm in some regions, this “security” is often the result of enforced silence rather than genuine stability. The Afghan economy is crippled by recession, unemployment, and widespread poverty. Limited access to foreign funds, sanctions, and the absence of a coherent economic plan have left millions living below the poverty line. International aid remains constrained by questions of legitimacy and transparency. On the global stage, Taliban isolation continues. Apart from a few states, such as Russia, most countries have withheld recognition of the “Islamic Emirate.” This lack of recognition restricts access to resources, hinders development, and blocks constructive engagement with the outside world. Given these conditions, Afghanistan’s political future hinges on several key factors:

1. A return to national dialogue and acceptance of the country’s political and cultural diversity.
2. The establishment of a participatory system with genuine public involvement.
3. The protection of fundamental rights, particularly for women and minorities.
4. Constructive, transparent engagement with the international community.

If the Taliban seek long-term stability, they must abandon exclusivism, repression, and political elimination in favor of the rule of law, participation, and social justice. Otherwise, history is likely to repeat itself—history that has shown regimes built on oppression and monopoly rarely endure.

The fourth anniversary of the Taliban’s return is not merely a date but an opportunity for reflection—on the path taken and the urgent need to reconsider the course ahead. A different future is still possible if there is the will for change and fairness.

 

Persian Sources

1. Mousavi, Nasser. (2021). Challenges of the Taliban Government and Its Implications for Afghanistan’s Political Stability. Strategic Studies Office, Tehran.
2. Afghanistan and the Regional Studies Institute. (2022). An Analysis of Political and Security Developments in Afghanistan After 2021. Analytical Report, Kabul.
3. Peace and Security Research Center. (2023). The Impact of Resistance Forces on Afghanistan’s Political Process. International Journal of Peace Studies, No. 12, pp. 53–70.

 

English Sources

1. International Crisis Group. (2023). Afghanistan’s Political Landscape Post-2021.
2. World Bank. (2023). Afghanistan Economic Update: Challenges and Opportunities
3. . Human Rights Watch. (2023). World Report 2023: Afghanistan. Retrieved from [https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2023/country-chapters/afghanistan](https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2023/country-chapters/afghanistan)
4. UN Women. (2024). Women in Afghanistan have not stopped striving for their rights, and neither should we. Retrieved from [https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/feature-story/2024/08/women-in-afghanistan-have-not-stopped-striving-for-their-rights](https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/feature-story/2024/08/women-in-afghanistan-have-not-stopped-striving-for-their-rights)
5. Amnesty International. (2023). Afghanistan: The Taliban’s treatment of women and girls should be investigated as a crime against humanity of gender persecution. Retrieved from [https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/05/afghanistan-talibans-treatment-of-women-and-girls-should-be-investigated-as-the-crime-against-humanity-of-gender-persecution/](https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/05/afghanistan-talibans-treatment-of-women-and-girls-should-be-investigated-as-the-crime-against-humanity-of-gender-persecution/)
6. International Federation of Journalists. (2024). Afghanistan: Media continues to erode under three years of Taliban rule. Retrieved from [https://www.ifj.org/media-centre/news/detail/article/afghanistan-media-continues-to-erode-under-three-years-of-taliban-rule](https://www.ifj.org/media-centre/news/detail/article/afghanistan-media-continues-to-erode-under-three-years-of-taliban-rule)
7. (2025). Taliban use force to divert international aid, US watchdog says. Retrieved from [https://www.reuters.com/world/taliban-use-force-divert-international-aid-us-watchdog-says-2025-08-13/](https://www.reuters.com/world/taliban-use-force-divert-international-aid- us-watchdog-says-2025-08-13/)
8. . Reuters: com/world/taliban-use-force-divert-international-aid-us-watchdog-says-2025-08-13/.

 

 

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بازگشت طالبان؛ از تجربه سقوط تا چالش‌های آزادی و مسیر آینده سیاسی افغانستان